About this Resource
The carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity (CIM) proposes that the consumption of carbohydrates — particularly high-GI carbohydrates — is the primary cause of obesity because of the relatively high insulin response they elicit in comparison to fat and protein. It is the theoretical basis for the widespread belief that carbohydrates are especially fattening and underpins some popular eating patterns such as Atkins or Ketogenic diets.
Grounded in the Research
“According to the carbohydrate-insulin model (CIM) of obesity, recent increases in the consumption of processed, high–glycemic-load carbohydrates produce hormonal changes that promote calorie deposition in adipose tissue, exacerbate hunger, and lower energy expenditure.”
Excerpt from: Ludwig, D. S., & Ebbeling, C. B. (2018). The carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity: beyond “calories in, calories out”. JAMA internal medicine, 178(8), 1098-1103.
References
[1] Hall, K. D. (2017). A review of the carbohydrate–insulin model of obesity. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71(3), 323-326. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2016.260
[2] Ludwig, D. S., & Ebbeling, C. B. (2018). The carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity: beyond “calories in, calories out”. JAMA Internal Medicine, 178(8), 1098-1103. https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamainternmed.2018.2933
[3] Ludwig, D. S., Apovian, C. M., Aronne, L. J., Astrup, A., Cantley, L. C., Ebbeling, C. B., … & Friedman, M. I. (2022). Competing paradigms of obesity pathogenesis: energy balance versus carbohydrate-insulin models. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76(9), 1209-1221. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-022-01179-2
[4] Czech, M. P. (2017). Insulin action and resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Nature Medicine, 23(7), 804-814.https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.4350
[5] Hall, K. D., Bemis, T., Brychta, R., Chen, K. Y., Courville, A., Crayner, E. J., … & Yannai, L. (2015). Calorie for calorie, dietary fat restriction results in more body fat loss than carbohydrate restriction in people with obesity. Cell Metabolism, 22(3), 427-436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.021
[6] Hall, K. D., Chen, K. Y., Guo, J., Lam, Y. Y., Leibel, R. L., Mayer, L. E., … & Ravussin, E. (2016). Energy expenditure and body composition changes after an isocaloric ketogenic diet in overweight and obese men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 104(2), 324-333. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.133561
[7] Johnston, B. C., Kanters, S., Bandayrel, K., Wu, P., Naji, F., Siemieniuk, R. A., … & Mills, E. J. (2014). Comparison of weight loss among named diet programs in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA, 312(9), 923-933.https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.10397
[8] Churuangsuk, C., Kherouf, M., Combet, E., & Lean, M. (2018). Low‐carbohydrate diets for overweight and obesity: a systematic review of the systematic reviews. Obesity Reviews, 19(12), 1700-1718. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12744
[9] Naude, C. E., Brand, A., Schoonees, A., Nguyen, K. A., Chaplin, M., & Volmink, J. (2022). Low‐carbohydrate versus balanced‐carbohydrate diets for reducing weight and cardiovascular risk. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013334.pub2